By Lon Bartel and Matt Bloodgood for Calibre Press | calibrepress.com
Editor’s note: New research identifies the challenges officers face as they transition between firearms, electronic control devices, and other force options during high-stress encounters. VirTra principal researcher and Force Science partnering instructor, Lon Bartel, along with Force Science graduate, Matt Bloodgood, highlight the critical role of transition training to improve public safety in this week’s Calibre Press newsletter.
When news headlines advise of another high-profile police shooting, communities understandably question why officers were required to use deadly force. There is no simple answer. Even where the shooting was consistent with legal requirements, human performance expectations, and the officer’s training, communities may still ask why officers couldn’t at least try non-lethal weapons and tactics. Of course the inverse is also true. Where officers are hurt or killed because they were unable to effectively transition from a TASER to a handgun, communities will be asking why.
Whether transitioning from a firearm to a non-lethal weapon or from a non-lethal weapon to a firearm, factors such as physical ability, perception of risk, available time, and the effectiveness of training always play a role. Here we focus on that last factor and argue that failure to effectively transition across force options should never result from ineffective training, or worse, no training at all. Unfortunately, research shows that is often the case.
Law enforcement officers face situations where they are required to rapidly transition between force options—from empty hands, to less-lethal, to firearms and often back again. The ability to seamlessly transition between a firearm and an electronic control device (ECD) back to a firearm is crucial for effective policing and public safety. However, recent studies, indicate that most officers are inadequately trained for these transitions, which can critically impact the safety of force encounters.
Using a high-fidelity VirTra simulator, the research conducted by Dr. Paul Taylor, Detective Paul Sipe, and Senior VirTra researcher Lon Bartel answered some important questions. (1) Research participants (police officers) could transition from lethal to less lethal and less lethal to lethal, but there was a significant time cost.
Transitioning from a firearm to a TASER took, on average, 4.70 seconds. By comparison, switching from a TASER to a handgun took an average of 2.49 seconds. While these times may seem fast to the layperson, 2 to 4 seconds in a critical incident provides dangerous opportunity for suspects to cross extended distances, close in on officers, and access and use weapons. Multiple studies have shown that individuals can cover a distance of 21 feet in an average of 1.5 seconds. (2) The Force Science “Sprint Study” found that an individual can cover over three feet in approximately 1/3 of a second, 7 feet in approximately 2/3 of a second, 15 feet in approximately 1 second, and 25 feet in approximately 1.6 seconds.
Another critical finding of this research was the role of training in transition time and effectiveness. Current training protocols in law enforcement academies emphasize proficiency with individual weapons rather than transitions between them. This research found that the lack of transition training can increase reaction times and result in errors during critical incidents. (1)
A significant training gap was identified, with over 70% of officers having never participated in firearm and TASER transition training. The findings revealed that the average perception-response time for transitioning from a TASER to a firearm was significantly shorter than transitioning from a firearm to a TASER. (1) This observation points to the complexities of de-escalating force options from firearms (lethal) to TASERS (less-lethal). The de-escalation from lethal to less lethal force options appeared to require more cognitive and mechanical processing than escalating to the presentation of firearms.
Holster design may also affect the transitioning time. Holsters with automatic locking systems engage when the handgun is fully inserted into the holster. (3) Holsters without automatic locking systems require the officer to manipulate the locking devices to secure the handgun, which will take longer than the automatic locking systems. Even so, the speed / retention trade-off still weighs in favor of officers engaging the locking devices.
The slower transition times from lethal to less-lethal options suggest a procedural deficiency that could potentially escalate rather than de-escalate force encounters. The inability to quickly transition to less-lethal options when a threat diminishes may lead to unnecessary use of lethal force, raising critical ethical and legal concerns. The necessity for specialized transition training is evident. Effective and safe weapon transitions, both up and down force options, is expected to enhance officer safety and improve public trust and outcomes in policing practices.
Trainers may initially include transition training as part of a firearms block of instruction. In this training, training guns or replica electronic control devices, inert OC, and batons might be used upon a signal to transition. While it is tempting to start with transitions that emphasize the physical manipulation of the tools, this “low-fidelity” training will not ensure high performance in the operational setting. (4)
Training must develop effective performance that transfers to real-world applications. (5) Simulated environments, such as on a VirTra simulation system or in a force-on-force event, provide opportunities for more realistic, high-fidelity training and transfer. (6) These scenario-based environments include a critical piece of the “ecological dynamic” of these events. The ecological dynamics include the interaction of personal, task, and environmental constraints within the context of the operational environment. For transition training, this can include the cognitive arousal state and its effects on perception and stimuli processing (e.g., recognizing threat cues) and decision-making. Progressive trainers will recognize the application and value of a “constraint-led approach” to teaching these types of skills. (4)
Implications for Training and Policy
The identified training gaps in weapon transitions should prompt law enforcement academies to integrate transition training into their curriculum. This training must have a contextual aspect, not just rote repetition in a square range environment. Policy modifications should reflect the importance of ongoing and recurrent training in weapon transitions to adapt to evolving operational demands and technology. For officers to utilize the relevant knowledge/skills/abilities, the investment of the proper development must precede the expected performance. Failing to provide timely and effective training while making unrealistic demands on performance is intellectually dishonest.
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References:
- Taylor, P.L., Sipe, P., & Bartel, L. (2021). Lost in transition: The effects of transitioning between firearms and electronic control devices (ECDs) on perception-response times (PRTs). The Police Journal: Theory, Practice and Principles, 96, 103-116.
- William L. Sandel a, M. Hunter Martaindale b and J. Pete Blair, Force Science Research Center, 2005a, 2005b; Martinelli, 2014, 2015; Tueller, 1983
- Blake, D., & Bartel, L. (2018). Holster and handgun: Does equipment affect response time? Law Enforcement Executive Forum, 18(2), 39-47.
- Andersen, J. P., Pitel, M. Weerasinghe, A., & Papazolou, K. (2016). Highly realistic scenario based training simulates the psychophysiology of real world use of force encounters: Implications for improved police officer performance. Journal of Law Enforcement, 5(4).
- Hutter, R.I., Renden, P.G., Kok, M., Oudejans, R., Koedijk, M., Kleygrewe, L. (2023). Criteria for the high quality training of police officers. In Staller, M.S., Koerner, S., Zaiser, B. (Eds.) Police Conflict Management, Volume II. Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-41100-7_2
- Cooper, D., Fuller, J., Wiggins, M. W., Wills, J. A., & Doyle, T. (2022). Negative consequences of pressure on marksmanship may be offset by early training exposure to contextually relevant threat training: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Human Factors: Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 66(1), 294-311. DOI: 10.1177/00187208211065907
